Introduction To The Pentateuch

The Hebrew Bible consists of three parts: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings, often referred to as the Tanakh, a word formed by the first letters of the Hebrew words for law, prophets, and writings. Jesus, in His post-resurrection conversation with the two disciples on the road to Emmaus, alluded to this tripartite division when He spoke of the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms (Luke 24:44). In so doing, He referred to all of what we call the Old Testament.

The first division, the Law, is the translation of the Hebrew word torah, which means “instruction.” It is, in fact, the most general word in the Old Testament to refer to God’s special revelation. The Law consists of the first five books, Genesis–Deuteronomy, and is commonly designated as the Pentateuch. Pentateuch is from the Greek, meaning “five scrolls.” The Old Testament itself refers to these five books as “the book of the law of Moses” (2 Kings 14:6), the “book of the law” (Josh. 1:8), “the law of Moses” (Josh. 8:31), or the “book of Moses” (Ezra 6:18). Christ spoke of both the law and the book of Moses (Mark 12:26; Luke 24:44). Indeed, occasionally He referred to the whole corpus simply as “Moses” (Luke 16:29; 24:27). The apostles did the same (Acts 15:21; 2 Cor. 3:15).

The biblical evidence, which includes the very words of Jesus Christ, attributes the authorship of these books to Moses. The evidence is overwhelming and unequivocal. The Scripture states that Moses recorded God’s words and deeds in writing, as the Lord had commanded him (Ex. 17:14; 24:4; 34:27; Num. 33:2; Deut. 31:9). The Lord Jesus affirmed that Moses wrote the law: “For had ye believed Moses, ye would have believed me: for he wrote of me. But if ye believe not his writings, how shall ye believe my words?” (John 5:46–47; see also Mark 1:44; 7:10; 10:3–5; Luke 5:14; 20:37; John 7:19). The apostles testified to the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch (John 1:17,45; Acts 3:22; 7:37; 26:22; Rom. 10:5,19; 2 Cor. 3:15; Heb. 7:14). There is collaborating evidence in the Pentateuch itself that points to Moses as the author. Deuteronomy 31:24 says explicitly, “And it came to pass, when Moses had made an end of writing the words of this law in a book, until they were finished” (also 31:22; see similar commands for Moses to write, Ex. 17:14; 34:27). Certainly, Moses had the qualifications: he was educated; he would have been familiar with the geography, as well as the flora and fauna of both Egypt and the Sinai. The Bible settles the question, and it has been the consensus of Christian tradition throughout the history of the church that Moses is in fact the author.

However, critical, rationalistic scholarship has categorically denied Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch. Alternative theories have proliferated and evolved, especially from the eighteenth century until the present, with the result that the Pentateuch is viewed as a composite from various traditions, redactors, and editors that did not take its final shape until a thousand years after Moses. No other portion of the Old Testament as been subjected to as much disintegrative criticism as has the Pentateuch. Such an assessment undermines the authority of Scripture and must be categorically rejected.

Dating the life and career of Moses and thus the dating of the Pentateuch is inseparably linked to the dating of the exodus. The key chronological clue comes from 1 Kings 6:1, which states that the exodus occurred 480 years before Solomon’s fourth year. Since the dates of Solomon (ca. 970–931 BC) are not disputed, this puts the exodus event in the mid-fifteenth century BC at about 1446, followed by the forty-year trek through the wilderness, ending in 1406. Consequently, Moses wrote each of the five books during that forty-year span from 1446–1406 BC. The specific dates are discussed in each of the respective introductions.

What the four Gospels are to the New Testament, the Pentateuch is to the Old. In addition to key theological themes and life applications, they both record the historical facts upon which the whole message of the Bible rests. The Pentateuch is foundational to the rest of the Old Testament, indeed to the whole of Scripture, since the New Testament is the continuation of God’s gracious communication that began in Eden. If the history and theology in the Pentateuch are brought under suspicion, then the authority and veracity of the rest of the Bible, including the gospel itself, crumble. Unquestionably, this is why so much rationalist criticism focuses its attack on the Pentateuch. God’s redemptive plan progresses through time and history; therefore, if the history is not trustworthy the gospel message is reduced to tradition and religious folklore. This is why Bible believers must affirm and defend the Mosaic authorship and the historicity of all the events detailed in the Pentateuch.

The Pentateuch reveals the origins and early development of God’s redemptive plan in terms of historical narrative interspersed with poetic sections but is essentially a self-contained story. The doctrines of divine sovereignty and providence, fallen humanity, gracious salvation, and the demand for holiness are on the surface, yet run deep, throughout the narrative. Genesis focuses on God’s absolute sovereignty in creation and in His plan to redeem a fallen race through the seed of the woman, who is further identified as the seed of Abraham. Consequently, it traces the development of Abraham’s seed, beginning history’s trek to the fullness of time when the ultimate and Ideal Seed would appear (Gal. 4:4). Exodus focuses on God’s covenant love and redeeming power in delivering Abraham’s seed from bondage and slavery. God’s rescuing Israel vouchsafed the Seed promise and became a paradigm in the rest of Scripture for God’s redeeming grace. Leviticus focuses on God’s sanctity and the absolute uniqueness of the holiness of His Person. God sets the terms and conditions of fellowshipping with Him, as His people are to imitate His holiness. Numbers focuses on the severity and providence of God as He leads them to the Promised Land. There is severity evidenced through the multiple disciplines designed to keep the faithless from inheriting the blessing. His providence is evidenced in His leading and providing for the people every day through those forty years. Deuteronomy focuses on the principles and requirements of covenant obedience. The conditions required for blessing and the warnings of curse for disobedience became the texts from which virtually every following prophet preached. Simply said, the Pentateuch defines the context for the Bible, both theologically and historically.

Admittedly, as you read through the Pentateuch much will seem to be outdated and irrelevant to the church corporately and to Christian individually. In fact, if we repeat literally some of the Pentateuch’s directives, we will violate Hebrew’s warnings about returning again to animal sacrifices, which would repudiate the once-for-all sacrifice of Christ. Remember that the Pentateuch records the first installments of God’s redemptive revelation. What Moses preached about the gospel was exactly what Paul preached in terms of content, although different in presentation. In contrasting his ministry with that of Moses, Paul said, “We used great plainness of speech” (2 Cor. 3:12). Through Moses God gave the people pictures and object lessons to point them to the reality the perfect Lamb of God. So even though we no longer implement the object lessons, we can still profit from looking at them to direct us to Christ. That was Moses’ intent. Paul gives us the interpretational clue for reading the Pentateuch: the veil of misunderstanding that sometimes affects the reading of the Old Testament is “done away in Christ” (2 Cor. 3:14–16). So as you read the Pentateuch, do so with a view to Christ. You will discover in the Pentateuch a visible paradigm of the gospel, both in terms of initial salvation and of progressive sanctification.

The First Book of Moses Called Genesis | 創世記

Authorship and Date

See the Introduction to the Pentateuch.

Theme

God’s sovereignty over man and all creation and events, and His faithfulness to His covenant despite man’s corruption and unfaithfulness.

Purpose

Moses wrote Genesis most likely while leading Israel through the wilderness (see Introduction to the Pentateuch above). For centuries, the people had lived as slaves under the oppressive rule of Egypt, where many gods were worshiped; now they lived in dependence upon the Lord who was leading them to the Promised Land. Genesis reminds Israel of her noble identity under the one true God by teaching her historical roots in Adam, Noah, and Abraham.

The purpose of Genesis is thus theological, historical, and covenantal. It is theological because all mankind should know the Lord is Creator; thus God is the central figure in the book from beginning to end (1:1; 50:20,25). It is historical because it is the only record of the true history of Adam and the human race, and the true history of Israel and who God is in relation to them. In contrast to other ancient writings, the Bible contains straightforward accounts of real historical events, not myths and legends. It is covenantal because God’s mighty works for His people throughout the book (including His establishing covenant with them) were proofs of His faithfulness, and because His people are required to trust Him.

Ultimately Genesis fosters the hope of the church, beginning with God’s first great promise of the Messiah and His rich revelation to His ancient people Israel. The great promise in Genesis is that of the “seed” who will redeem mankind from sin and Satan through Christ’s suffering (3:15). This promise is foundational to the book, as each successive covenantal revelation revolves around “seed” (9:9; 17:7; 26:3; 28:4; 48:4). It also illuminates the meaning of the sacrifices, which appear immediately after the fall (4:4; cf. 3:21), showing that animal sacrifices were mere shadows of Christ, the promised Seed and the one perfect sacrifice for sin. This protected Israel from resting upon the ceremonies revealed in the law, guarding them from formalistic, external religion and pointing them to trust in the coming Christ. Believers today are warned of the same dangers (Gal. 3).

Issues of Interpretation: Genesis and the History of Origins

The stakes are high when interpreting this book because Genesis is fundamental to the rest of the Bible—indeed, to the entire Christian faith. A plain and straightforward reading of the text has led many believers to view it as the real, historical, authoritative narrative of the origins of the universe, biological life, the human race, and the beginning of the nation of Israel. This literal understanding of Genesis is the one taken in the notes of this study Bible.

However, this reading of Genesis contradicts the views of many modern scientists and historians. To avoid this conflict, people have made various proposals, especially concerning the opening chapters of the book. For example, some authors say that “create” does not mean to make something but to give it a new function. Others argue that “day” need not indicate an actual day or that the early parts of Genesis are a literary framework, more like symbolic poetry than a historical account. Adam, we are told by others, was not literally made by God from the dust but from some apelike creature. Some even say that not all mankind came from Adam or that Adam never existed as an individual man in history as Genesis describes him. Others deny that the seven days of creation are ordinary days and still others try to put gaps in the week of creation. The aim of most of these proposals is to accommodate Genesis to theories about the evolution of mankind from simple forms of life and ultimately from inanimate matter. Some of their authors still affirm orthodox Christian beliefs, but their ideas tend to take many away from biblical faith.

Scripture is like a tapestry with truths running throughout it. We cannot unravel one book of the Bible and think that it will not harm our faith. Many doctrines find their roots in the early chapters of Genesis. The Trinity is involved in creation (1:2,26), with Christ preeminent over all things (John 1:3; Col. 1:15–18). Man is made in the image of God, different from the animals (Gen. 1:27; 1 Cor. 11:7), and at the beginning of creation (Matt. 19:4). The first woman is not made from dust as Adam, but from the side of Adam (Gen. 1:27–28; 2:18,22–24; 1 Tim. 2:13). Marriage is defined as one man to one woman (Gen. 2:23; Matt. 19:4–6; Eph. 5:31). Sorrow and death come from Satan and Adam’s sin (Gen. 3; John 8:44; Rom. 5:12; 1 Cor. 15:22). Adam brought suffering and death upon the whole of the human race; there was no death prior to the fall (Rom. 5; 1 Cor. 15). Sin has brought hardship in work for men and in childbearing for women (1 Tim. 2:14–15). Blood sacrifice is essential to atone for sin (Gen. 3:21; 4:4; Heb. 9:22). Clothing is needed as a direct consequence of the fall (Gen. 3:21; 1 Tim. 2:9). The worldwide flood is a type of the final judgment to come (Luke 17:26–27); just as the second coming of Christ is universal to all men, so the flood was universal to the whole world (Gen. 6–9; Luke 17; 2 Peter 3). The Seed of the woman would come and bruise the serpent’s head; Christ would be born of a virgin and gain the victory over the serpent and his seed (Gen. 3:15; Isa. 7:14; Luke 2).

All of these doctrines are rooted in Genesis. For example, consider the effects of denying that Adam was a real, historical man who did what Genesis relates, but instead is a symbol of mankind’s origins through evolution. We lose, first, the basis of mankind’s nobility above the animals (1:26–28; 9:1–6; Ps. 8); second, the root of mankind’s unity despite all our colors and cultures (Gen. 3:20; Acts 17:26); third, the divine institution of our distinctive identities and relationships as men and women (Matt. 19:3–6; 1 Cor. 11:8–9; 1 Tim. 2:13–14); fourth, the theology of Christ as our last and greater Adam (Luke 3:22–23,38; Rom. 5:14–19; 1 Cor. 15:21–22,45,47); and fifth, the explanation of death as not original to God’s creation but the consequence of sin (Gen. 2:17; Rom. 5:12).

This last point of the theology of death due to sin is particularly important because it is linked to the theology of the atonement taught in the New Testament (Rom. 5; 1 Cor. 15:3). The theistic evolution position (which seeks to accommodate evolution within Scripture) attempts unsuccessfully to have pre-Adamic creatures evolving (and physically dying) before Adam and his fall. Consequently, they try to suggest Adam only spiritually dies at the fall. If the penalty for sin was only spiritual death, then why did Jesus physically die on the cross? Ultimately, theistic evolution undermines the gospel.

In the midst of such confusion, we need to remember that unless the genre of particular portions of Scripture indicates otherwise, Scripture is best read in a straightforward fashion with confidence that God will teach those who seek Him. The evangelical doctrine of Holy Scripture gives us freedom to receive whatever the Bible teaches. The perspicuity (clarity) of Scripture means that the Bible is clear in all the major teachings of the faith. We do not need an interpretation that requires torturous arguments or advanced learning to squeeze Scripture into an evolutionary mold. For example, when the creation account speaks of six days with mornings and evenings, we exegete the word yom (Hebrew for the word “day”) consistently with the whole of the Old Testament where yom, mentioned with morning or evening, always refers to ordinary days, not ages.

The sufficiency of Scripture declares that the Bible gives us all we need in order to know the true God and His will. We do not need new scientific insights in order to know what God’s ways really are. The authority of Scripture reminds us that whenever the Bible conflicts with human ideas, God’s Word must rule. Other forms of study, such as science and history, are valuable and worthy of a Christian’s labors; they contribute to our service of our neighbor and stewardship of creation. Indeed Scripture gives the framework for such studies. But for all our learning, we must humbly listen whenever God speaks. This is not turning off our mind, but using it in the most reasonable fashion. What is more reasonable than to believe the words of One who is infinitely wiser than us?

Synopsis

The Contribution of Genesis to Redemptive Revelation

Genesis offers four main contributions to the revelation of Holy Scripture, each of which points to the glory of God in Christ. Each of these contributions finds its major expression in one part of the book (see outline below), but also permeates the book as a whole.

First, Genesis presents the doctrine of creation. God called into being all that exists by His Word and Spirit (1:1–3). Whereas other creation stories in the Ancient Near East spoke of the world arising out of a conflict between various supernatural powers, Genesis unfolds the forces of the universe coming into existence in a peaceful and orderly fashion according to the will of one Creator, who then pronounced them “very good” (v. 31). The process of creation over six days displays God’s perfect wisdom and power. Particularly in His creation of man, God revealed that He is a God of relationships. He has relationships within Himself (“Let us make man,” v. 26), and He made man in His image (v. 27) to reflect His glory as the good ruler of the world (v. 28) and to relate to Him as children relate to the father who begot them (5:1–3). All mankind shares this common root in Adam (3:20) and all nations come from the offspring of Noah after the flood as recorded in the table of nations (ch. 10). True cosmology and anthropology are only understood through the lens of Genesis.

Second, Genesis teaches the doctrine of corruption. God warned that death would follow disobedience immediately (2:17). Though physical death was mercifully delayed (3:19; 5:5), spiritual death fell on Adam and Eve immediately, replacing openness with shame, boldness with fear, and love with hatred (3:7–12). God drove the king and queen of creation out of His presence and barred the way to Paradise with hostile angels and fiery death (3:24). Their children manifested the bitter fruits of their sin in unacceptable worship, jealousy, murder, lying, and polygamy (ch. 4). While the human race still showed some fragments of the image of God in its skill in agriculture, architecture, music, industry, and poetry (4:17–24), their souls were so corrupt that every notion of their hearts was always evil (6:5), even from their youth (8:21). All of this corruption offended the Lord (6:6–7). God made His judgment against sinners plain when He wiped all humanity off the face of the earth with the sole exception of Noah’s family (7:21–23). After the flood, corruption spread again and God deliberately confused the one-world system under Nimrod with different languages at the Tower of Babel (ch. 11), and later yet again when He destroyed the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah (ch. 19).

Third, Genesis introduces the doctrine of covenants. In chs. 2–3, God appears nineteen times as “the Lord God,” where the first word is His covenant name, Jehovah. He imposed His law of obedience upon Adam with the threat of death and the promise of life sealed in the sacramental signs of the two trees (2:9,15–17; 3:11,22). He later used this same name when revealing Himself to Moses as the sovereign and faithful covenant God of Israel (Ex. 3:13–18). The word “covenant” appears repeatedly in God’s dealings with Noah (Gen. 6:18; 9:9–17) and Abraham (15:18; 17:1–21)—sealed with a rainbow (9:13–16) and circumcision, respectively (17:10–14). The covenant is implied also in expressions like “the God of Abraham,” Isaac, or Jacob (24:12,27,42,48; 26:24; 28:13; 31:5,29,42,53; 32:9; 43:23; 46:1,3; 49:24–25; 50:17). But whereas Adam was placed under a law of works before he fell, Abraham and His covenant seed were placed under God’s grace—His kindness, mercy, truth, and faithfulness (24:12,14,27; 32:10; 39:21). They were not justified by their works, being deeply flawed men, but by faith in the promise (15:6).

Fourth, Genesis announces the inevitable crisis when man’s corruption and strange providences conflict with God’s covenants, and God’s people must live by faith. Abel worshiped God acceptably but was martyred for his faithfulness. Abraham received God’s promise of a multitude of offspring, but stumbled at times as he waited for decades to receive just one son in the covenant. Then he died without seeing the Promised Land in his possession. Jacob was foreordained to be blessed (25:23), but his deceit sent him fleeing into exile that lasted for years, while he himself suffered the tricks of another until God brought him home. The life of Joseph is the supreme example of this crisis, and Genesis devotes over a fifth of its chapters to his humiliation because of his brothers and his exaltation to save the same brothers, and by extension, God’s chosen people.

These four themes come to a focal point in Christ. As the eternal, divine Son, Jesus Christ is the great image of God who cooperated with His Father to create all things (Col. 1:15–17; Heb. 1:2–3). He did this so that He could come as the incarnate image of God and rule the universe with the sons and daughters of God re-created in His likeness (Rom. 8:17–23,29). The promise given in the covenants centers upon Him, the Seed that crushed the head of the tempter at great cost to Himself and through whom all nations were and are blessed (Gen. 3:15; 12:3; Gal. 3:8,13–14,16). He was humiliated even unto death on the cross, but was lifted up to save sinners (Acts 5:30–31; Phil. 2:5–11). Just as the Hebrew lord of Egypt fed thousands and rescued them from death, so the Son of God will feed people beyond numbering and rescue them from eternal death.

Outline

1. The Creation and Corruption of the World (1:1—11:32)
   1. The Creation of All Things with Adam as Head (1:1—2:25)
   2. The Fall of Mankind into Sin and Death (3:1—5:32)
   3. The Worldwide Flood and the Rainbow Promise (6:1—9:29)
   4. The Division of Nations and Languages (10:1—11:32)
2. The Covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (12:1—36:43)
   1. The Promises of God to Abraham (12:1—25:18)
   2. The Grace of God to Isaac and Jacob (25:19—36:43)
3. The Crisis of Israel Regarding Joseph and Judah (37:1—50:26)
   1. The Humiliation of Joseph and Sin of Judah (37:1—40:23)
   2. The Exaltation of Joseph and Nobility of Judah (41:1—45:28)
   3. The Sojourning of Israel in Egypt (46:1—50:26)

The Second Book of Moses Called Exodus | 出埃及記

Authorship and Date

On the authorship and date of the book, see Introduction to the Pentateuch. The date of Israel’s exodus is debated. Some scholars propose a late date around 1290 BC based upon an interpretation of archaeological evidence. However, other archaeologists have found additional evidence that calls into question this conclusion. More importantly, the Scriptures indicate a much earlier date, c. 1446 BC, by placing the exodus about 300 years before the judge Jephthah (Judg. 11:26) and 480 years before Solomon’s fourth year on the throne (1 Kings 6:1). Even if one or both of these are round numbers, they point to an exodus in the fifteenth century BC.

Theme

God keeps His covenant through the gifts of redemption, law, and divine presence.

Purpose

To reveal the Lord as the gracious and powerful God who keeps His covenant though His people are lawbreakers.

Synopsis

The Contribution of Exodus to Redemptive Revelation

The word “exodus,” the ancient Greek title of the book, means “the way out” or “departure,” referring to the Lord’s deliverance of Israel out of Egypt. The book’s history reaches back to the death of Joseph circa 1875 BC. However, most of its events (chs. 3–40) take place in the time of the exodus from Egypt in the mid-fifteenth century BC.

Exodus builds upon Genesis as the continuing history of God’s mighty works to bless the offspring of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (1:1; 2:24; 3:15). It also echoes Genesis in many smaller ways. The multiplication of Israel in Egypt alludes to God’s blessing upon newly created man to be fruitful and multiply (1:7; Gen. 1:28). Little Moses is set afloat in a miniature “ark” coated with tar and pitch like Noah’s great ark (Gen. 6:14; Ex. 2:3; ). The same God who created the “herb,” “fruit,” and “tree” also destroyed them in His plague of locusts on Egypt (Gen. 1:11; Ex. 10:15).

Genesis is a book of promises to Abraham and his offspring, and Exodus is a book where the God of Abraham continues fulfilling those promises. Exodus especially declares how the covenant Lord of Israel kept His promise to redeem His people and dwelt with them as their King and Lawgiver (6:2–8; 19:4–6; 29:43–46).

This message may be summed up in the following key themes.

First, God revealed His glory in His works: “I am the Lord” (20:2). In one sense, the book revolves around the revelation of the meaning of God’s name, Jehovah or “the Lord” (3:13–14; 6:2–8). The purpose of His mighty works in Exodus is that people of all nations would know who He is (9:16; 10:1–2). Thus we find the repeated statement that God acts so that people will “know that I am the Lord” (6:7; 7:5,17; 8:22; 14:4,18; 16:12; 29:46; 31:13; also many times in Ezek.). The Lord will glorify His great name, and even His enemies will serve that purpose (Ex. 14:4,17–18).

However, His great works are meant not only to instruct people about Him intellectually, but to know Him personally and live in His presence as His covenant people (29:46). This is the essence of the eternal life given to sinners: that they know God through Christ’s mediation (John 17:3). One of the core promises of the new covenant is that all of God’s people will know Him experientially (Heb. 8:11) as the only real treasure (Jer. 9:23–24).

Second, the Creator waged war against the false gods of Egypt to display His sovereignty (12:12; Num. 33:4). Egypt regarded the Pharaoh as a divine being. The God of Israel opposed their “thus saith Pharaoh” with “thus saith the Lord” in a titanic contest of sovereignty (Ex. 5:1,10). In the ancient world, people worshiped many gods and believed that each god ruled a particular part of life. The Lord sent Moses and Aaron with miracles to humiliate the sorcerers of Egypt, who invoked the powers of their gods (7:8–12; 8:18–19; 9:11). The ten plagues displayed the impotence of Egypt’s gods to defend their land against the Lord, with some plagues (if not all) targeting the domain of a specific idol (see notes at chs. 7–10). The Lord’s total control over the river, frogs, insects, livestock, weather, light, and life of Pharaoh’s own son demonstrate that He is the Creator who is sovereign over all things.

God was training His people to understand Him as the only true God. Thus Israel sang at the banks of the Red Sea, “Who is like unto thee, O Lord, among the gods? . . . The Lord shall reign for ever and ever” (15:11,18). This is the backdrop of the first commandment: “Thou shalt have no other gods before me” (20:3). It is also the thrust of the book of Revelation, which calls men to cease worshiping the pleasures and idols of this world and to give glory to Him who sits on the throne and to the Lamb. “The kingdoms of this world are become the kingdoms of our Lord, and of his Christ; and he shall reign for ever and ever” (Rev. 11:15).

Third, God revealed His righteous sovereignty over sin. The Lord not only entered into battle against sinners, but also staged and controlled the battle for His own glory. Before Pharaoh even heard the Lord’s command to “let my people go,” God told Moses that He would harden Pharaoh’s heart so that he would not comply (4:21). Exodus uses three terms for God hardening Pharaoh’s heart: eight times the Lord is said to have “hardened” his heart (4:21; 9:12; 10:20,27; 11:10; 14:4,8,17; cf. Josh. 11:20; Ps. 95:8); once He “made stubborn” his heart (Ex. 7:3; cf. Deut. 2:30); and once He “made heavy” his heart (Ex. 10:1), in the sense of making it insensitive and unresponsive (Isa. 6:10). This was not a passive permission on God’s part, but an active control according to His plan, giving Pharaoh over to the power of sin.

Pharaoh is not thereby excused for his stubborn pride: three times it says that he “made heavy” his own heart (8:15,32) and so he “sinned” (9:34). Several times Exodus simply says that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened without giving a cause (7:14,22; 8:19; 9:7,35). The very mention of his “heart,” however, implies that Pharaoh acted as an agent with a mind and a will. Therefore, Pharaoh was not reduced to the level of a robot; he chose this course of action and was held responsible for his sin (10:16). Nor did God have any pleasure in his sin, but instead commanded him to release Israel and rebuked him for his stubbornness (10:3). God is not the author of sin.

However, the Lord’s holy will ruled over Pharaoh’s sinful will, so that Pharaoh’s choices were set by God’s decree and determined by providence: “But the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart, and he would not [literally, “was not willing to”] let them go” (10:27). When Pharaoh hardened his heart, it was “as the Lord had said” (8:15)—man’s sin fulfilling God’s Word (7:13,22; 8:19; 9:35). Pharaoh’s resistance against God served God’s purpose to display His glory and sovereignty through His mighty works (7:3; 9:16; 10:1; 14:4). Though the Egyptians believed that the heart of Pharaoh was sovereign over the world, God held the heart of the king in His hand, turning it wherever He pleased (Prov. 21:1).

Exodus expands on the theme of the Joseph narrative in Genesis: sinners plan evil but God planned their evil for good (Gen. 50:20). The hardening of Pharaoh’s heart demonstrated that God reigns over the sinful hearts of His enemies. We observe the same theme in the New Testament accounts of Christ’s crucifixion, which teach that sinful men were guilty of the murder of Jesus Christ, and yet God controlled everything to fulfill the plan of redemption He had revealed in the Scriptures (Matt. 26:54,56; 27:9,35; Mark 15:28; Luke 9:22; 22:22; John 19:36; Acts 2:23; 4:27–28; 1 Cor. 15:3–4).

Fourth, the Lord redeemed sinners to be His covenant people (6:6–7). In the law, the redemption of a criminal was the payment of a compensation price to release him from punishment (21:29–30). The redemption of a slave required a kinsman to pay the price to purchase him out of bondage (Lev. 25:47–48). The Lord redeemed His people from their slavery to the Egyptians, though Israel was guilty of idol worship and deserved divine punishment (Josh. 24:14; Ezek. 20:5–9; cf. Ex. 32). When His wrath fell on Egypt, Israel was spared only because God covered them with His redemption (8:23). The blood of the Passover lamb turned away divine judgment (12:13) so that death to Egypt was freedom for Israel. Christ is our Passover sacrifice (1 Cor. 5:7), for His bloody death as the Lamb of God sets people from all nations free from their sins (John 1:29; 1 Peter 1:18–19; Rev. 1:5; 5:9).

In redemption, the Lord took Israel as His special treasure (19:5; Deut. 7:6). Their redemption was not merely for the sake of liberation from political oppression; God redeemed Israel so that they would be His people under His covenant. God said to Pharaoh, “Let my people go, that they may serve me” (Ex. 7:16; 8:1,20; 9:1,13; 10:3). Yet their service was not slavery, but worship (5:1,3)—adoration of the God who saved them (15:1–2). The Ten Commandments open with a reminder of redeeming grace: “I am the Lord thy God, which have brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (20:2). To be sure, God’s law regulated every facet of Israel’s life, asserting His authority as Lord over all. Israel could not be God’s holy covenant people without obedience to the covenant Lord (19:5–6). But obedience to the commandments must spring from faith in the God who already accomplished salvation and in His Mediator (4:1; 14:31; 19:9). God’s grace trains us to do righteousness because Christ redeemed His people from the penalty and power of sin (Titus 2:11–14).

The physical hub of Israel’s covenant relationship with the Lord was the sanctuary where God lived (25:8). Mankind lost their dwelling with God when expelled from the garden of Eden (Gen. 3:23–24). God revealed to Jacob that He intended to join heaven and earth so that He would dwell with His people in His house (Gen. 28:10–22). It was the very purpose of redemption that God should dwell with His people (Ex. 29:46). In the tabernacle, this plan advanced in a significant way. As the notes at chs. 25–31 show, the design of the tabernacle and the ordination of the priesthood reveal much about how Christ would open the way for His people to enter the holy place (Heb. 10:19–22) and bring them to a heavenly Eden (Rev. 22:2).

Fifth, God worked salvation and judgment through a human mediator. Moses was not merely a recorder of God’s acts but was central to everything God did in this book. In a limited sense, we may use the word “mediator” of Moses (Gal. 3:19), for he was a type of Christ.

Moses was foremost a prophetic mediator of God’s truth. Exodus states dozens of times that the Lord spoke to Moses, from his call at the burning bush to the refrain “as the Lord commanded Moses” that pulses like a drumbeat through the last two chapters of the book. God put His words in the prophet’s mouth; he spoke only what God had given to him (4:12,15–16; 6:29; 7:1–2; Jer. 1:9; 2 Peter 1:20–21). Yet he was a man like those he served, and a human prophet was a gift of mercy because the people feared they would die when God spoke directly to them (Ex. 20:18–19). Moses experienced amazing face-to-face access to God (24:15–18; 33:9–11). His unusual ministry foreshadowed the great Prophet (Deut. 18:18; 34:10; Acts 3:22; 7:37), the Son who dwells in the heart of the Father and alone makes Him known (Matt. 11:27; John 1:18).

Moses also served as a kingly mediator of God’s power. The Lord was with him to bring Israel out of Egypt (3:10–12) by working wonders through him (9:8–10). The “rod of God” (4:20) in the hand of Moses (and Aaron), though perhaps only a shepherd’s staff, became like a king’s scepter whereby God challenged the sovereignty of Pharaoh (4:2,4,17; 7:9–10,12). By this instrument the Lord sent judgment upon Egypt (7:15,17,19–20; 8:5,16–17; 9:23; 10:13) and gave salvation and life to Israel (14:16; 17:5,9). Moses became the head of a large administration of rulers over Israel (18:18–27). Later, after the debacle of the golden calf, Moses disciplined the people forcefully (32:19–29). Thus he was a type of the royal Son of God, who defends, rules, and disciplines His church (Rev. 3:7–8,19).

Lastly, Exodus reveals a priestly mediator of God’s mercy. The priestly office of Christ was foreshadowed in the ministry of Aaron and his sons (Heb. 5:1–6). Moses did not bear a priesthood of this order, but he shared in its work (Ps. 99:6) and in some ways exceeded its privileges. Aaron could handle the holy things of God only when consecrated and clothed in sacred garments (Ex. 28–29), but Moses was the one who consecrated the first priests and holy places (Lev. 8–9). His inauguration of the tabernacle created an external way for the Lord to dwell with His people—a way superseded only when the Son became the living tabernacle, together with all united to Him (John 1:14; 1 Cor. 3:16). The priestly character of Moses’ office also appears in his intercession with the Lord. His prayers ended specific plagues (Ex. 8:8–14,28–31; 9:27–33; 10:16–19), and saved Israel from the wrath of God when he offered himself to die as their substitute and obtained a marvelous revelation of God’s love (chs. 32–34).

However, Moses was an imperfect mediator, and not a mediator of saving grace. In this book, he faithfully records his own unbelief and provoking of God’s anger (4:13–14,24–25). His “uncircumcised lips” resulted in him delegating part of his ministry to Aaron (6:12–13). His responsibility to rule wearied him; no mere man could bear the burden of leading the people alone (18:18). Moses gave the law written on stone tablets but could not write it on their hearts. The Lord did not accept his offer to die as a substitute (32:32–33), and the priestly system instituted through him consisted of sinful men and mere animal sacrifices. In the end, Moses was only a shadow of Him who was to come, the one Mediator between God and man (1 Tim. 2:5).

God designed Exodus to be a rich book, and yet an incomplete book in two senses. First, it ends without a full revelation of the ritual laws necessary to instruct Israel in how to live with a holy God, thereby leading directly into Leviticus. Second and more significantly, Exodus is incomplete because it recounts physical redemption but reveals spiritual bondage, thereby pointing to the need for Christ. For all the glory of the old covenant, it was but moonlight waiting for the rising of the Sun of righteousness with healing in His wings (Mal. 4:2).

Outline

1. The Lord Redeems Israel out of Egypt (1:1—18:27)
   1. The Calling of the Deliverer (1:1—7:7)
      1. The Sorrows of Israel and Moses (1:1—2:25)
      2. The Lord’s Revelation of Himself to Moses (3:1—4:31)
      3. Pharaoh’s Resistance and the Lord’s Promise (5:1—7:7)
   2. The Lord against the Gods of Egypt (7:8—15:21)
      1. Confrontation of the Serpents (7:8–13)
      2. Plagues 1–3: No One Like the Lord (7:14—8:19)
      3. Plagues 4–6: The Lord Sets Apart His People (8:20—9:12)
      4. Plagues 7–9: Devastation from the Lord (9:13—10:29)
      5. Plague 10: Passover and Exodus from Egypt (11:1—13:22)
      6. Salvation to the Glory of God (14:1—15:21)
   3. Israel in the Wilderness with God (15:22—18:27)
      1. Tests and Crises of Faith (15:22—17:16)
      2. Jethro’s Worship and Wisdom (18:1–27)
2. The Lord Takes Israel for His People (19:1—40:38)
   1. God’s Gracious Covenant of Law (19:1—24:18)
      1. The Fearsome Majesty of the Lord (19:1–25)
      2. The Ten Commandments (20:1–21)
      3. The Book of the Covenant (20:22—23:33)
      4. The Cutting of the Covenant (24:1–18)
   2. God’s Holy Presence in the Tabernacle (25:1—40:38)
      1. The Design of the Tabernacle (25:1—31:18)
      2. The Problem of God’s Presence with Idolaters (32:1—34:35)
      3. The Construction and Filling of the Tabernacle (35:1—40:38)
         [The law and ceremonies continue in Leviticus.]

The Third Book of Moses Called Leviticus | 利未記

Authorship

Liberal scholarship has denied the Mosaic authorship of Leviticus, but conservatives identify Moses as the author and maintain the unity of the book as a unit as well as an integral part of the Pentateuch. Both external and internal evidence support Mosaic authorship.

Externally, more than two thousand years of tradition has accredited authorship with Moses. This has been maintained for a variety of reasons. First, Christ confirmed Moses as the author or originator of the “Law” (Luke 24:44). The Law (Hebrew, torah) was known to be the collection of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Moreover, the New Testament refers to the laws in Leviticus as given to Moses (Matt. 8:4, referring to Lev. 14:2–3; Luke 2:22–24, citing Lev. 12:8; John 7:22–23, referring to Lev. 12:3).

Second, there is a strong literary and theological connection between Exodus and Leviticus. Exodus ends with the building of the tabernacle and the glory of God coming to settle into the Holy of Holies. From a literary perspective, it appears consistent that Leviticus would pick up with the regulations of worship within the tabernacle and the ordinances to be observed by Israel. There is good internal evidence for Mosaic authorship of Exodus (cf. Ex. 24:4), and given the close connection, most likely Moses simply picks up where he left off, continuing the statues and commandments of the Lord for His people.

Third, Moses (and Aaron) is certainly the dominant mediator between God and Israel. We read 39 times that the Lord spoke to Moses (cf. 1:1; 4:1; 5:14; etc.). Similarly, there are other forms of dictation between God and Moses. Because much of this book is composed of what God said to Moses and what he was commanded to reveal to the people of Israel, it is likely that the primary author of Leviticus was Moses. (For more information, see Introduction to the Pentateuch: Authorship.)

Date

The date is inseparably linked to the date of the exodus. The biblical evidence from 1 Kings 6:1 and Judg. 11:26 (and others) points to the mid-fifteenth century BC. Exodus 40:17 indicates that the tabernacle was erected in the first month of the second year after the exodus. Leviticus 1:1 indicates the tabernacle was standing and Num. 1:1 indicates that Israel planned to leave Sinai on the first day of the second month of the second year after leaving Egypt. All this suggests the date then of 1445 BC for the composition of Leviticus.

Theme

Holiness resulting from atonement is essential to fellowship with God.

Purpose

God teaches His people how they can have fellowship with Him. Leviticus opens with the Lord calling to Moses out of the tabernacle of the congregation. In Exodus He was on Mount Sinai and none dared approach Him (Ex. 19:21). Now however, He dwells in the midst of His people for their sake. And this is possible through the messianic sacrifices with which the book opens. By these He can receive them graciously, both in their wilderness journeys and in the land of Canaan.

Synopsis

The Contribution of Leviticus to Redemptive Revelation

The Jews called the book simply by its opening phrase, “And called” (1:1). The word has the idea of crying out or preaching to someone. God captures Moses’ attention and gives to him the laws and ceremonies of this book. The title “Leviticus” has come from the Septuagint, and means “relating to the Levites.” This title is appropriate because the Levitical priests are central to the book. The Lord through Moses entrusts the laws and ceremonies to the Levitical priests (and the Levites, their helpers) to administer, and He instructs the people to observe the principles of true worship.

Exodus shows God bringing forth a redeemed people. Leviticus shows Him making a holy people. Two great themes dominate the book: atonement (mentioned 43 times) and holiness (77 times). These cannot be separated. In atonement, our guilt is covered and wiped clean; with holiness, we are separated to God and made clean. Atonement is made by offering sacrifices and the intercession of priests, both of which point to the Messiah to come. Holiness is effected by our contact with God, the work of His Spirit within, and our walk in light of His laws—this makes us consecrated to God (Ps. 4:3).

These themes can be seen in Leviticus through the use of types. Our word “types” means “example,” “pattern,” or “figure” (1 Cor. 10:6,11). That is, the laws and ceremonies are picture prophecies finding fulfillment in Christ and the gospel. God was teaching His people through these visual aids, but the reality would be when Jesus Christ came in the fullness of time. The gospel then was the same as now; the means of declaring the gospel was different—then in the visible pictures along with Moses’ explanations, now in the preaching of completed revelation of God in the Scripture. Those who saw Christ in the sacrifices were saved and blessed on the same ground as we are—His finished work. The cross looks back through the ages, because Christ was the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world (Rev. 13:8).

Leviticus is also set forth as “shadows,” as in Heb. 10:1, “a shadow of good things to come” (Hebrews is the New Testament counterpart of Leviticus). Shadow means “an image cast by an object which represents its form.” Imagine someone coming toward you on a sunny day. The sun is behind him, and his shadow reaches you first. His shadow is a rough shape or outline of his person and substance. So it is on the pages of the Old Testament, including Leviticus. Our Lord and His gospel, with heavenly light behind, cast shadows as the fullness of time approaches. These tell us about His person and work. Leviticus gives the “good things to come” their outline and shape. And their blessings were for those who, through them, looked to the promised Redeemer.

Outline

1. The Offerings (1:1—7:38)
   1. The Burnt Offering (1:1–17)
   2. The Meat Offering (2:1–16)
   3. The Peace Offering (3:1–17)
   4. The Sin Offerings (4:1—5:13)
   5. The Trespass Offerings (5:14—6:7)
   6. Instructions to Priests Concerning the Offerings (6:8—7:38)
2. Institution of the Aaronic Priesthood (8:1—10:20)
   1. Priestly Consecration (8:1–36)
   2. The Priests’ Entrance into Office (9:1–24)
   3. Nadab and Abihu’s Sin (10:1–20)
3. Laws Relating to Ritual Uncleanness (11:1—15:33)
   1. Uncleanness Due to Contact with Animals (11:1–47)
   2. Uncleanness Due to Childbirth (12:1–8)
   3. Uncleanness Due to Skin Diseases (13:1—14:57)
   4. Uncleanness Due to Bodily Discharges (15:1–33)
4. The Day of Atonement (16:1–34)
5. The Holiness God Requires of His People (17:1—22:33)
   1. Holiness in Eating Food (17:1–16)
   2. Holiness in the Marriage Relationship (18:1–30)
   3. Holiness in Justice and Love toward God and Man (19:1–37)
   4. Various Sins: Their Prohibition and Punishment (20:1–27)
   5. Holiness of Priests, Gifts, and Sacrifices (21:1—22:33)
6. The Sabbath and the Sacred Calendar (23:1–44)
   1. The Sabbath (23:1–3)
   2. The Passover and Unleavened Bread (23:4–8)
   3. The Firstfruits (23:9–14)
   4. The Feast of Weeks or Pentecost (23:15–22)
   5. The Blowing of Trumpets (23:23–25)
   6. The Day of Atonement (23:26–32)
   7. The Feast of Tabernacles or Booths (23:33–44)
7. Some Remaining Matters (24:1—27:34)
   1. The Holy Lamps and Shewbread (24:1–9)
   2. The Punishment of a Blasphemer (24:10–23)
   3. The Sabbatical and Jubilee Years (25:1–55)
   4. Promises and Warnings (26:1–46)
   5. Directions Concerning Vows (27:1–34)

The Fourth Book of Moses Called Numbers | 民數記

Authorship

In Hebrew this book is called, “And He spoke,” or, “In the wilderness” (both taken from its first verse). The Greek Septuagint gave it the name “Numbers” due to the focus on the issue of numbering that the book contains. Like the other four books of the Pentateuch, the Mosaic authorship of Numbers has always been unanimously ascribed by the ancient Jews, the custodians of the Old Testament Scriptures. In various Scriptures the term “the law of Moses” is employed, obviously referring to a body of literature that he wrote. An example is 2 Chron. 23:18 where reference is made to the presentation of burnt offerings “as it is written in the law of Moses.” Numbers 28 contains much detail about the burnt offering, so we may legitimately conclude that Numbers belongs to “the law of Moses.” Furthermore, Christ testifies in John 5:46, “Moses . . . wrote of me,” and in v. 47 refers to “his writings.” Thus the Savior verifies that Moses was an authentic person; that he was a writer with a plurality of writings ascribed to him; that his writings were extant in New Testament times; that the Jews had access to them; and that He, Christ, was the theme of them. In the light of these examples, we may deduce that Moses wrote Numbers.

Date

The events of Numbers begin in the second month of the second year after the exodus (1:1) and conclude when the nation is opposite Jericho at the end of their wanderings (35:1; 36:13). This would date Numbers between 1445 and 1405 BC. For further discussion of authorship and date, see Introduction to the Pentateuch.

Theme

Divine discipline, direction, and provision for God’s people.

Purpose

To trace the transition from the old generation, who refused to enter Canaan, to the new generation, who would inherit the Promised Land, and to show the necessity of faith for following the Lord (ch. 14).

Synopsis

The Contribution of Numbers to Redemptive Revelation

Paul’s assessment of Hebrew history was that “these things were our examples” and that they “happened unto them for ensamples: and they are written for our admonition, upon whom the ends of the world are come” (1 Cor. 10:6,11). Significantly, most of the events that Paul highlights occurred during the wilderness wanderings recorded in the book of Numbers. Therefore, the relevance of Numbers for the Christian is fixed with apostolic authority. It is an inspired history that teaches more than simple facts; it is replete with spiritual lessons and applications.

The book begins with a record of the Lord’s detailed instructions of how the nation was to march into the Promised Land. He set the order of march; He provided the means for sanctified worship; and He promised His presence in the form of the cloud to lead them every step of the way. All they had to do was follow in faith and obedience, but that is exactly what they did not do. The New Testament sums it up this way: “The word preached did not profit them, not being mixed with faith in them that heard it” (Heb. 4:2). They were brought to the very border of blessing but refused to enter because of unbelief (Num. 14). That is a key gospel lesson underscored over and over again in Numbers, that without faith God will not be pleased (Heb. 11:6). The old generation stood as a warning to every other to trust the Lord (Ps. 95:8–11).

Although the wilderness wanderings were disciplinary, they were also gospel sermons. Since saving faith is always objectively placed in Christ, the book of Numbers sets forth the Messiah in many ways. Indeed, Numbers is full of Christ. The tabernacle worship and sacrifices that were offered regularly were picture prophecies of the Lamb without spot and blemish that would take away sin. But in addition there were other vivid pictures. Jesus Himself compared Moses’ lifting up of the bronze serpent to His being lifted up on the cross (Num. 21:4–9; John 3:14). The one reversed the curse of the fiery serpent; the other the curse of sin itself. Similarly, the rock from which the water of life flowed is a type of Christ, who was the Rock (1 Cor. 10:4); the daily manna pointed to Christ as the Bread come down from heaven (John 6:31–33). Hebrews 9:13–14 compares the ashes of the red heifer (Num. 19) with the cleansing obtained through Christ’s blood. The cities of refuge picture the safety to be found in Christ. Even the forced prophecies of Balaam look to the coming of Christ, the Star and Scepter, who will subdue every nation under His authority. On the one hand, Numbers chronicles a period when Israel was stalled in the desert. But on the other hand, Numbers records great strides in the progression of redemptive revelation.

Outline

1. Israel at Sinai (1:1—10:10)
   1. Census and Organization of Israel (1:1—4:49)
      1. Numbering of Warriors (1:1–54)
      2. Arrangement of Tribes (2:1–34)
      3. Numbering and Duties of Levites (3:1—4:49)
   2. Various Laws and Events (5:1—9:14)
      1. Uncleanness, Restitution, and a Test for Adultery (5:1–31)
      2. Nazarites and the Priestly Blessing (6:1–27)
      3. Gifts for the Tabernacle (7:1–89)
      4. Consecration of the Levites (8:1–26)
      5. Celebration of Passover (9:1–14)
   3. Instructions for Moving the Camp (9:15—10:10)
      1. Cloud (9:15–23)
      2. Trumpets (10:1–10)
2. Journey from Sinai to Kadesh-Barnea (10:11—14:45)
   1. Procedures for Departure from Sinai (10:11–36)
   2. Provision of Quail and the Seventy Elders (11:1–35)
   3. Complaint of Miriam and Aaron against Moses (12:1–16)
   4. Mission and Report of the Spies (13:1–33)
   5. Failure of the People to Enter Canaan (14:1–45)
3. Period of Wilderness Wandering (15:1—21:35)
   1. Sacrifices, Sabbath Breakers, and Tassels (15:1–41)
   2. Rebellion against and Confirmation of Aaron’s Priesthood (16:1—17:13)
   3. Instructions regarding the Levites (18:1–32)
   4. Purification Rites and the Red Heifer (19:1–22)
   5. Disobedience at Meribah, Deaths of Miriam and Aaron, and Conflict with Edom (20:1–29)
   6. Fiery Serpents and Defeat of Various Enemies (21:1–35)
4. Story of Balaam (22:1—24:25)
   1. Balaam’s Resistance to God’s Will (22:1–41)
   2. Balaam’s First Two Prophecies (23:1–30)
   3. Balaam’s Third and Fourth Oracles (24:1–25)
5. Israel on the Plains of Moab (25:1—36:13)
   1. Sin of Baal-Peor (25:1–18)
   2. Second Census (26:1–65)
   3. Daughters of Zelophehad and Selection of Joshua to Follow Moses (27:1–23)
   4. Various Regulations (28:1—30:16)
      1. Regular Offerings (28:1–15)
      2. Festival Offerings (28:16—29:40)
      3. Vows (30:1–16)
   5. War against Midianites (31:1–54)
   6. Inheritance of Transjordan Tribes (32:1–42)
   7. Various Lists (33:1—35:34)
      1. Instructions for Encampment (33:1–56)
      2. Borders of Canaan and Procedures for Its Division (34:1–29)
      3. Levitical Cities and Cities of Refuge (35:1–34)
   8. Regulations Insuring Inheritances (36:1–13)

The Fifth Book of Moses Called Deuteronomy

Authorship

In the early 1800s, liberal scholars proposed that Deuteronomy was written by King Josiah and the high priest Hilkiah (2 Kings 22) to concentrate political unity and finances in Jerusalem. They argued that Josiah and Hilkiah conspired to produce a document that would eliminate worship outside of Jerusalem, ensuring that offerings would be brought to the temple and national unity cultivated. They invoked Moses as its author, staged its discovery, and with great drama proclaimed it as God’s Word in a large, formal assembly.

Such an approach necessitated a compositional date of 621 BC, the date of Josiah’s reformation. Whereas Christians throughout history have accepted Deuteronomy upon its own claims of Mosaic authorship some 800 years earlier, liberal scholars en masse opted for the later date. Since that time multiple theories, revisions, reversals, and contradictions have marked the stream of thinking regarding the date of Deuteronomy. Conservative scholars, though a minority, have consistently reaffirmed the claims of the book: “And it came to pass in the fortieth year, in the eleventh month, on the first day of the month, that Moses spake unto the children of Israel” (1:3).

Deuteronomy is divine revelation, and consequently reliable when it states that Moses is the author. Several considerations verify the conservative reading. Deuteronomy is written in the form of treaties dating from the second millennium BC—the time Moses lived—not in the form used in Josiah’s day. Treaties from the second millennium included a review of history (chs. 1–4), stipulations of the treaty (chs. 5–26), and consequences of heeding or violating the treaty’s terms (chs. 27–32). Treaties from Josiah’s era generally include neither history nor consequences. Moreover, the treaty format indicates a single author, which militates against notions that Deuteronomy was compiled by multiple scribes.

In addition, the writer of Deuteronomy does not write like one living in Jerusalem in 621 BC, but like someone with Egyptian experience who is also very familiar with wilderness living. Animals named are native to the Sinai and Upper Egypt, not Palestine (14:5). The same is true of the acacia wood (10:3) and the sanitary instructions (23:12–14), which are clearly for a nomadic, desert existence, not for settled communities such as existed in Josiah’s time. The author writes as an outsider to Canaan, as one would expect Moses to write.

Moreover, Deuteronomy claims Mosaic authorship (1:3; 31:9), and other biblical writers affirm the same. Second Chronicles 25:4, reporting events more than 200 years prior to Josiah, cites Deut. 24:16 and calls it “the book of Moses.” Nehemiah refers to Deut. 23:3 as “the book of Moses” (Neh. 13:1). The Jewish leaders of Christ’s day, like those since Christ, knew that Moses wrote Deuteronomy, and Christ confirmed their understanding (Matt. 19:7–8 citing Deut. 24:1–4; Matt. 22:24 citing Deut. 25:5). The New Testament quotes from Deuteronomy more than eighty times—this ought to be conclusive confirmation of the conservative position.

This has led a majority of Jewish and Christian scholars and writings to accept the opening words of Deuteronomy: “These be the words which Moses spake unto all Israel” (1:1). This and more than twenty other similar statements settle the question of authorship. Deuteronomy was written by Moses. (See also Introduction to the Pentateuch.)

Date

Trusting the authorship of Moses and the reliability of the historicity of Deuteronomy, we know that Moses received these words “in the fortieth year, in the eleventh month, on the first day of the month, that Moses spake unto the children of Israel” (1:3) and wrote them down shortly thereafter. This places the date of authorship near the end of Israel’s wilderness wandering, forty years after the exodus and just prior to the entrance into Canaan, approximately 1406 BC.

Theme

Covenantal love between God and His people.

Purpose

To remind Israel of God’s covenant as they prepare to enter into Canaan.

Synopsis

The Contribution of Deuteronomy to Redemptive Revelation

The title “Deuteronomy” means “second lawgiving” and is the Greek title found in the Greek Septuagint (LXX). Compare the statement that the future king shall write for himself “a copy of this law [Greek deuteronomion]” (17:18, LXX). Since the lawgiving on Sinai, Israel’s adult population had died. The new generation had not heard Sinai’s trumpets; they needed to hear from Moses what God had commanded.

A record of legal infractions, applications, and interpretations had been established during four decades in the wilderness. The relevance of the law could now be recognized in ways that it had not been earlier. Moses articulates the law again in a recitation that reflects Israel’s temperament and four decades of experience in the wilderness.

He affirms again the precepts of Jehovah for the conduct of His chosen people. They were people of the divine covenant. The blessings of that covenant were sustained by their adherence to its terms.

Soon Israel would cross the Jordan River and enter the land covenanted to Abraham, a land inhabited by idolatrous nations. Israel’s propensity toward idolatry was evident in the golden calf incident at Sinai (Ex. 32–34) and in the fact that the first prohibitions of God’s law forbade other gods and graven images. In the land of promise Israel would face serious temptation in an area of great vulnerability. It was of primary urgency, therefore, that the law of God be repeated to Israel as a prelude to entering Canaan and to a new era of her history.

Moses would soon be dead. In a sense, he had been the embodiment of the law to Israel, for his very presence affirmed God’s law. As if determined to make one last, memorable affirmation of the law, Moses speaks Deuteronomy, the “second lawgiving,” at the border of Canaan.

Deuteronomy affirms God’s love for His people and expounds the love they must have for Him. One of the most significant verses of all of Deuteronomy is “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord: and thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might” (Deut. 6:4–5).

Israel’s privileged position came from God’s unconditional election of them (7:7–8). Just as divine love was demonstrated when God chose Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob he now shows this love by preserving their descendants throughout the Egyptian sojourn. Their deliverance and Pharaoh’s destruction at the Red Sea exhibited God’s unique love for His people.

God’s love was further exhibited at Sinai, where Moses received the law. No other people received this manifestation of divine love. Israel’s responding love was to be exhibited in obedience to the terms of the covenant.

Deuteronomy codifies the love covenant. Written in the form of a vassal-treaty, its affirmation of love includes instructions for respondent love exhibited in submission. Israel’s obedience to the terms of that treaty would confirm to them the continuation of favors such as no other people would receive, repeatedly reinforcing that love.

A parent’s love for offspring is demonstrated in careful guidance and discipline. God’s love for His people is expressed in the precepts and promises of Deuteronomy. God loves His people and will therefore care for them, eliminating their enemies and giving them the land promised to Abraham. But to ensure these favors they must acknowledge His lordship through obedience to His law. As a people chosen for His special possession, they must be holy as He is holy.

Outline

1. Introduction (1:1–5)
2. Preparatory Address (1:6—4:43)
   1. From Horeb to Kadesh (1:6–46)
   2. From Kadesh to Conquest (2:1—3:29)
   3. Exhortation to Heed God’s Law (4:1–40)
   4. Cities of Refuge East of Jordan (4:41–43)
3. Expounding God’s Law (4:44—26:19)
   1. Introductory Explanation (4:44–49)
   2. Commandments and Related Exhortations (5:1—11:32)
      1. The Ten Commandments (5:1–33)
      2. Love God and Remember His Commandments (6:1–25)
      3. Separation from Idolaters, God’s Blessing (7:1–26)
      4. Exhortations, Blessings, and Curses (8:1—11:32)
   3. Statues and Judgments (12:1—26:15)
      1. God’s Sanctuary (12:1–32)
      2. Deceivers and Idolaters (13:1–18)
      3. Customs: Mourning, Diet, and Levite’s Care (14:1–29)
      4. Sabbath Release (15:1–23)
      5. Religious Feasts (16:1–22)
      6. Sacrifices, Idolaters, Adjudication, and Kings (17:1–20)
      7. Care of Priests, Idolaters, the Great Prophet (18:1–22)
      8. Cities of Refuge, False Witnesses (19:1–21)
      9. Regulations for Warfare (20:1–20)
      10. Unsolved Murder, War Captives, and Rebellious Sons (21:1–23)
      11. Civility, Distinctiveness, and Purity (22:1–30)
      12. Ethical and Moral Stipulations (23:1—25:19)
      13. Canaan’s Firstfruits (26:1–15)
   4. Concluding Reminder and Exhortation (26:16–19)
4. Blessing and Curses (27:1—28:68)
   1. Prescribed Ceremony at Ebal and Gerizim (27:1–26)
   2. Blessings and Curses (28:1–68)
5. Concluding Instruction (29:1—33:29)
   1. Past Blessing (29:1–29)
   2. Reaffirmed Covenant (30:1–20)
   3. Moses’ Farewell (31:1–13)
   4. Jehovah’s Warning (31:14–30)
   5. Song of Moses (32:1–52)
   6. Blessing the Tribes (33:1–29)
6. Conclusion: Moses’ Death and Joshua’s Succession (34:1–12)

Also see: